Biology+Final+Review


 * PA State Standards Assessed: **
 * Describe the characteristics of life shared by all prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.
 * Compare cellular structures and their functions in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
 * Describe and interpret relationships between structure and function at various levels of biological organization (ie., organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems and multicellular organisms)
 * Describe the unique properties of water and how these properties support life on Earth (ie., freezing point, high specific heat, cohesion, adhesion, surface tension)
 * Explain how carbon is uniquely suited to form biological macromolecules.
 * Describe how biological macromolecules form from monomers.
 * Compare the structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids in organisms.
 * Describe and interpret relationships between structure and function at various levels of biochemical organization (ie., atoms, molecules, macromolecules)
 * Describe the role of an enzyme as a catalyst in regulating a specific biochemical reaction.
 * Explain how factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration levels can affect enzyme function.
 * Describe the roles of chloroplasts and mitochondria in energy transformations.
 * Compare the basic transfer of energy during photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
 * Describe the role of ATP in biochemical reactions.
 * Identify and describe how organisms obtain and transform energy for their life processes.
 * Describe how the structure of the plasma membrane allows it to function as a regulatory structure and/or protective barrier for a cell.
 * Identify and describe the cell structures involved in transport of materials into, out of, and throughout a cell.
 * Compare the processes that transport materials across the plasma membrane (ie., passive transport = diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion; and active transport = pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis).
 * Describe how membrane-bound cellular organelles (e.g. endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, lysosomes) facilitate the transport of materials within a cell.
 * Explain mechanisms that permit organisms to maintain biological balance between their internal and external environments through the process of homeostasis (eg., thermoregulation, water regulation, oxygen regulation).
 * Describe the events that occur during the cell cycle: interphase, nuclear division (ie., mitosis or meiosis), cytokinesis.
 * Compare the processes and outcomes of mitotic and meiotic nuclear divisions.
 * Describe how the process of DNA replication results in the transmission and/or conservation of genetic information.
 * Explain the functional relationships between DNA, genes, alleles, and chromosomes and their roles in inheritance.
 * Explain how genetic information is inherited.
 * Compare Mendelian and non-Mendelian patterns of inheritance.
 * Describe and/or predict observed patterns of inheritance (ie, dominant, recessive, co-dominance, incomplete dominance, sex-linked traits, polygenic traits and multiple alleles).
 * Describe processes that can alter composition or number of chromosomes (ie., crossing-over, nondisjunction, duplication, translocation, deletion, insertion and inversion).
 * Explain the process of protein synthesis (ie, transcription, translation and protein modification).
 * Describe how the processes of transcription and translation are similar in all organisms.
 * Describe the role of ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum (rough vs. smooth), Golgi apparatus, and the nucleus in the production of specific types of proteins.
 * Describe how genetic mutations alter the DNA sequence and may or may not affect phenotype (eg. silent, nonsense, point, frameshift).
 * Explain how genetic engineering has impacted the fields of medicine, forensics, and agriculture (eg. selective breeding, gene splicing, cloning, genetically modified organisms, gene therapy).
 * Explain how natural selection can impact allele frequencies of a population.
 * Describe the factors that can contribute to the development of new species (eg. isolating mechanisms, genetic drift, founder effect, migration).
 * Explain how genetic mutations may result in genotypic and phenotypic variations within a population.
 * Interpret evidence supporting the theory of evolution (ie. Fossil, anatomical – homologous structures vs. vestigial structures vs. analogous structures, physiological, embryological, biochemical and universal genetic code).
 * Distinguish between the scientific terms: hypothesis, inference, law, theory, principle, fact and observation.
 * Describe the levels of ecological organization (ie, orgranism, population, community, ecosystem, biome and biosphere)
 * Describe characteristic biotic and abiotic components of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
 * Describe how energy flows through an ecosystem (eg. food chains, food webs, energy pyramids).
 * Describe biotic interactions in an ecosystem (eg. competition, predation, symbiosis).
 * Describe how matter recycles through an ecosystem (ie. Water cycle, carbon cycle, oxygen cycle, nitrogen cycle).
 * Describe how ecosystems change in response to natural and human disturbances (eg. climate changes, introduction of nonnative species, pollution, fires).
 * Describe the effects of limiting factors on population dynamics and potential species extinction.


 * Ch 1: Biology in the 21st Century **
 * Ch 1 Vocab (evolution, adaptation, homeostasis – homeostatic mechanism, metabolism, organism, biodiversity, biology, species, biosphere)
 * Characteristics of Living Things
 * Scientific method & related vocab (hypothesis, experiment, independent variable, dependent variable, constant, theory, inference, law, principle, fact)
 * Quantitative vs. Qualitative Observations


 * Ch 2: Chemistry of Life **
 * Atom, Molecule, Element, Compound
 * Bonds – Ionic, Covalent, Hydrogen, Peptide
 * Acids vs. Bases
 * pH scale
 * Biological Macromolecules (Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins & Nucleic Acids) – Know the structure and function of each of these! (Polymer vs. Monomers)
 * Enzymes – What are their functions? What factors affect enzyme function (pH and temp)? What is a catalyst?
 * Properties of Water (cohesion, adhesion, high specific heat, universal solvent, freezing point, etc.) – How do they support life on Earth?
 * Chemical reactions (reactants, products)
 * Why is carbon such an important element?


 * Ch 3: Cell Structure and Function **
 * Cell Theory
 * Prokaryotes versus Eukaryotes (similarities and differences)
 * Cell Organelles and their functions
 * Be able to label a diagram of a cell
 * Fluid Mosaic Model (phospholipids, carrier proteins
 * Passive vs. Active Transport
 * Endocytosis vs. Exocytosis
 * Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitated Diffusion, Selective Permeability, Impermeable
 * Examples of homeostasis (pH regulation, blood volume, body temp, oxygen levels, water levels)


 * Ch 4: Cells and Energy **
 * Photosynthesis (**Products and Reactants**)
 * ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) vs. ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate)
 * Light vs. Dark Reactions
 * Glycolysis (**Products and Reactants**)
 * Cellular Respiration (**Products and Reactants**)
 * Fermentation (Lactic Acid vs. Alcoholic)
 * Where does photosynthesis take place? (What organelle?)
 * Where does cellular respiration take place? (What organelle?)
 * Anaerobic vs. aerobic respiration
 * What is the role of ATP in biochemical reactions?


 * Ch 5: Cell Growth and Division **
 * Phases of Mitosis (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase)
 * How many cells do we start with and how many do we end with in mitosis?
 * Cell Cycle (G1, S, G2 and M)
 * Cytokinesis
 * Cancer, Benign, Malignant
 * Asexual reproduction, binary fission, cell differentiation, stem cells
 * Levels of Organization (Cells à Tissues à Organs à Organ Systems)


 * Ch 6: Meiosis and Mendel – Vocab is VERY important! **
 * Allele, gene, chromosome, homologous chromosome, genome, crossing over, genetic linkage, haploid, diploid, autosome, sex chromosome
 * Punnett Squares (Know how to do them!) – Only monohybrid crosses
 * Dominance vs. Recessiveness; Genotype vs. Phenotype; Homozygous vs. Heterozygous; Purebreed vs. Hybrid
 * Gregor Mendel – Father of Genetics
 * Law of Segregation; Law of Independent Assortment
 * Somatic cell vs. sex cells (gametes) & chromosome # in each
 * How many cells do we start with & how many do we end with in meiosis?


 * Ch 7: Extending Mendelian Genetics **
 * Incomplete dominance
 * Codominance
 * Sex-linked genes
 * Carrier
 * Polygenic trait
 * Pedigree
 * Karyotype
 * Gene linkage


 * Ch 8: From DNA to Proteins **
 * DNA vs. RNA
 * Nucleotides (sugars, phosphate, nitrogen bases)
 * Nitrogenous Bases of DNA vs. RNA (uracil, thymine, guanine, cytosine, adenine)
 * Shape of DNA
 * Chargaff’s Rule
 * DNA polymerase vs. RNA polymerase
 * DNA replication, Transcription, Translation
 * Codon vs. Anticodon
 * mRNA vs. tRNA
 * Watson & Crick
 * Central dogma (DNA à RNA à proteins)
 * Mutations (point, frameshift – deletion vs. insertion, translocation, gene duplication, “silent” mutation)


 * Ch 9: Biotechnology – Genetic Engineering **
 * Gene therapy
 * Cloning
 * DNA fingerprinting
 * Selective breeding
 * Gene splicing
 * Genetically modified organisms
 * How has genetic engineering impacted the fields of medicine, forensics and agriculture?


 * Ch 10 & 11: Evolution **
 * Natural selection
 * Allele frequencies
 * Isolating mechanisms
 * Genetic drift
 * Founder effect
 * Migration
 * Population dynamics
 * What factors contribute to the development of a new species (speciation)?
 * How do genetic mutations result in variations within a population?
 * What evidence supports the theory of evolution? (fossils, anatomical evidence – vestigial structures vs. homologous structures vs. analogous structures, physiological evidence, embryological evidence, universal genetic code)


 * Ch 13-16: Ecology **
 * Levels of ecological organization (organism, population, community, ecosystem, biome and biosphere)
 * Biotic and abiotic factors in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
 * Energy flow in an ecosystem (food chains, food webs, energy pyramids)
 * Biotic interactions in an ecosystem (competition, predation, symbiosis)
 * Recycling of matter in an ecosystem (water cycle, carbon cycle, oxygen cycle, nitrogen cycle)
 * Describe how ecosystems change in response to natural and human disturbances (eg. Climate changes, pollution, fire, introduction of new species)
 * Limiting factors on populations; potential causes of species extinction